![]() ![]() ![]() Our analysis showed teacher-guided class discussions to exhibit more contextualization, more explanatory questions, as well as more use of abstract historical concepts as compared to discussions in student pairs. In a study in which we focussed on historical reasoning and its’ mediation through pictures and task instructions, we compared student dyads with whole-class discussions (Van Boxtel and Van Drie 2003). In a study investigating the effects of different representational tools, as, for instance, an argumentative diagram and a matrix, we were able to show through the analysis of chat discussions and students essays that the amount and type of historical reasoning was shaped by the format of the representation (Van Drie et al. For example, we found that as a starting point for historical inquiry by students, an evaluative question appeared to be more powerful than an explanatory question to provoke historical reasoning (Van Drie et al. Using the revised components as a ground for our coding schemes, we were able to identify differences in the amount and quality of historical reasoning between different tasks, as well as between experts and novices within the domain of history in various studies. We subsequently refined and extended our initial set of components through analyzing the quality of historical reasoning in student essays, chat discussions in an electronic learning environment, small group discussions, and whole-class discussions. From the available research literature, we identified components of historical reasoning so that to use them as a starting-point for the analysis of our data. We wanted to create a framework that would allow us to describe progression in both reasoning and learning in history, as well as to identify the effects of different learning tasks and learning tools. In our studies on history learning in secondary education, we needed a framework that would enable us to analyze students’ reasoning both in writing and speaking, for example, in collaborative learning situations. Such a more inclusive view of the activities that makes up the process of historical reasoning is lacking in most of the research work (cf. For instance, the writing of an essay on a historical topic involves several activities such as contextualizing the topic in a broader historical context, providing explanations for events, describing changes, and comparing historical sources. While these studies provide many important insights into these specific aspects, historical reasoning as such can be seen to involve a whole range of more or less interrelated activities. ![]() ![]() 1996 Wineburg 1991a), or the explanation of historical events (e.g., Carretero et al. Most studies related to historical reasoning focus on only one specific aspect, such as the use of evidence (e.g., Rouet et al. 134), which then requires analysis, synthesis, hypothesis generation, and interpretation. ( 1994) studying historical reasoning from the perspective of instructional explanations given to students, described it as “the process by which central facts (about events and structures) and concepts (themes) are arranged to build an interpretative historical case” (p. This requires the ability to appreciate the context, to deliberate and judge, to reflect on the causes of historical events and processes, their relative significance, and the potential outcomes of alternative courses of action, and, lastly, to reflect on the impact of the past on the present.Īlthough the term historical reasoning is often used, it is much less defined or described in detail. In line with this, Barton and Levstik ( 2004) argue that history should promote reasoned judgment about important human matters. For instance, the ability to argue about historical artefacts, rather than accept or reject uncritically what is presented, is viewed as a significant capacity for participation in a democratic society (Rosa et al. It has been incorporated into the history curriculum in several countries and is considered to empower students to understand history, as well as social life in general. Reasoning with information about the past can be considered as an important cultural practice of societies. Recent views of learning history have emphasized learning to reason with facts and stories about the past, and learning to create new coherent stories (McCarthy Young and Leinhardt 1998a O’Reilly 1991 Perfetti et al. Traditionally, the focus of history education has been on the content, and learning history mainly implied memorizing important facts and data from the (national) past. ![]()
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